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individuals will never
truly optimize their performance. With that in mind, let's break
down linear and lateral movements and how to teach them to your
athletes.
Motor Skill
Development
Many people think that athletes are genetic freaks capable of making
superhuman feats look easy because they possess unworldly speed and
outstanding genes. It is important to realize, however, that we are
all athletes and can perform anything if we work at it. The
difference between high level athletes and the average athlete is
the nervous system. High level athletes have highly tuned nervous
systems that can call upon their muscles to perform a movement very
efficiently. The goal of training is to improve the efficiency of
motor unit recruitment.
When athletes listen to an explanation of a new skill and then
observe demonstrations of the skill, they begin to develop motor
programs for that skill. A motor program is an internal
representation of the skill - similar to a computer program - that
contains a set of instructions to perform the movement. These
instructions are written in the language of the athletes’ nervous
and muscular systems and allow athletes to begin practicing the
skill. At first the new motor program may be quite crude and contain
some errors. However, with practice and feedback, both from the
athletes’ sensory systems and from the coach, the motor program is
revised and refined so that it gradually becomes more effective at
controlling performance.
Teaching technique is a vital step in making athletes more
efficient. To totally understand how a movement pattern is
established, it is important to go over the phases of motor skill
learning. The first phase is the cognitive or beginning phase of
skill learning. An athlete focuses on gaining an understanding of
how the skill is to be performed; this phase is characterized by
conscious attention to the details of the movement. The next phase
of motor skill learning is the associative phase. During this phase,
the athlete practices the skill to the point that it is performed
both accurately and consistently. With proper practice and feedback,
the athlete’s motor program for the skill will become better
developed than it was in the cognitive phase of learning. The
athlete will not have to focus much attention on the movements
themselves, but can start to incorporate more of the surrounding
environment into play. The final phase of motor skill learning is
the autonomous phase. During this phase, the athletes can perform
the skill with perfection. The skill is automatic and requires very
little conscious thought. In fact, conscious thought may actually
interfere with the performance of the movement. Since the movement
is performed flawlessly, the athlete can concentrate more on
external stimuli such as an opponent or strategy.
Teaching Movement vs. Timing Movement
The speed at which an athlete performs a particular movement skill
is irrelevant when teaching new skills. The important points are to
teach athletes to move in the most biomechanically efficient manner
possible to foster solid motor programs in the athlete. Other
coaches prefer to spend their time coming up with a variety of
different agility and speed drills and focus on how fast athletes
can get it done, while I think it is more important to perform a
lesser variety of drills over and over until it becomes automatic.
Each drill becomes progressively harder over time, but the same
underlying concepts are taught throughout. I believe in teaching and
learning skills slow and perfect before fast and sloppy. If athletes
can be taught to move efficiently and properly, they won’t waste
energy and will ultimately be better prepared to succeed. That is
why movement training should always be performed in a state of very
little fatigue. Proper technique must be enforced and encouraged.
Don’t let athletes settle for performing drills with improper
technique; when coaches do so, they are doing their athletes an
injustice.
It’s All in the Shins
Teaching athletes to become more efficient with their movement
training comes down to simple physics. Newton’s 3rd law of motion
explains how to accelerate and decelerate. It is stated:
For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
In other words, “the statement means that in every interaction,
there is a pair of forces acting on the two interacting objects. The
size of the forces on the first object equals the size of the force
on the second object. The direction of the force on the first object
is opposite to the direction of the force on the second object.
Forces always come in pairs - equal and opposite action-reaction
force pairs (5).”
Now what does this mean to increasing our movement skills? It means
that to move in a particular direction we must apply force in the
opposite direction of our intended direction and the more force we
apply back to the ground the more the ground will push back at us.
Let’s take a look at straight-ahead sprinting. If we want to move
forward, we have to push in the opposite direction (backwards) with
a great amount of force to cause an acceleration of the body. If we
wanted to go up (vertical jump), we have to push straight down into
the ground, and the same applies for lateral movement. To teach this
concept to athletes can be difficult, especially if they aren't
familiar with the underlying physics. I always teach my athletes how
to properly apply force into the ground in order to accelerate and
decelerate. The simplest way to get this point across is to look to
your shins. When we accelerate we have a positive shin angle (small
angle between shin and foot), and when we decelerate we have a
negative shin angle (large angle between shin and foot). A positive
shin angle is less than 90-degrees, while a negative shin angle is
90-degrees and greater. This shin angle allows our bodies to be in
the most efficient position to apply force into the ground, whether
we are moving forward, backward, or laterally.
Positive Shin Angle
Negative Shin Angle
Linear Movement
Training
Linear movement training (LMT) is also known as straight-ahead speed
training. As the name implies, the goal of LMT is to increase
straight-ahead speed. Most field sports hardly ever require athletes
to run in a straight line; nonetheless, it is imperative that
athletes know how to sprint properly. LMT also helps to improve
general athleticism, and assists with lateral movement training (LAMT).
The first thing to learn when first learning sprinting technique is
the PAL system. PAL is an acronym coined by Vern Gambetta, which
stands for Posture, Arm Action, and Leg Action. Teaching sprint
mechanics can easily be broken down into these 3 components.
Initially drills should focus on each of these separate components.
As the athletes’ level of skill increases, more integrated drills
should be incorporated into the movement sessions.
Postural Drills
The best drills to teach proper posture for acceleration are wall
drills. Stand about 3-4 feet away from a sturdy wall. Lean into the
wall so that your arms are straight, torso is at a 45-degree lean,
and heels are off the ground. Raise your right knee and toe up, with
the heel directly underneath the butt. If there is lumbar flexion
noted, the knee has come up to high. This starting position is the
same for both wall marches, and wall switches.
Good Wall Posture
Bad Wall Posture
Wall March: From the position described above, begin with
your right knee up in the air. Cue to pull the toe up every time the
knee comes up, and make sure the heel is right under the butt, when
the knee comes up. On the coaches’ command the athlete is to drive
their foot back and into the ground hard so that they will rise up
to their toe or even pop up off the ground. The foot should hit
directly next to the foot on the ground and under the hip. Look to
see if the athlete gets triple extension of the ankle, knee and hip.
Perform 5-10 reps for one leg, and then switch to the opposite leg.
This drill also works on leg action.
Wall Switches: From the same position as above, begin with
your right knee up in the air. On the coaches’ command (same cues as
in the wall march) the athlete is to switch legs, so now the left
knee is up and right is on the ground. The athlete is to maintain
the same postural position as he switches legs. Begin with a single
switch, and it can progress up to 5 switches. The athlete is to hold
the position until the coach tells them to relax. The key thing to
look for is to make sure that the knee and toe come all the way up
each time and not just on the last rep. You will see some athletes
that will do that just to make the drill look faster.
Arm Action: Arm action is an important part of sprinting that
many athletes perform poorly. An arm action drill is always a staple
in our LMT, because it needs to be constantly reinforced. The cues
of teaching arm action are very simple. The shoulders need to be
relaxed and with very minimal tension. The arm should be at a
90-degree angle between the upper and lower arm, and movement should
occur at the shoulder. You will notice that many athletes will
extend their elbows; this should be discouraged. When athletes
extend their elbows, they are creating longer lever arms, which take
more time to move than shorter lever arms. The easiest cue is to
tell your athletes to drive their elbow back behind them. The arm
should be straight back and forth with very minimal side to side
movement. The hand should move from the chin to hip pocket.
Seated Arm Action: The athlete begins sitting on the floor,
with their knees pulled in slightly. They should maintain an upright
posture, with the chest out and shoulders back. Arms should be at
90-degrees and movement should occur at the shoulder. Begin with
slow arm action, so that the athlete is performing the proper
movement pattern. As they improve, increase the speed to a point
where they are actually bouncing up off the ground.
Standing Arm Action: This is performed the same way as on the
floor except now the athlete is in a more specific position. Begin
slowly and then increase speed as proficiency increases.
Leg Action: Proper leg action is key when teaching
acceleration. First and foremost, a coach should always look for a
positive shin angle. Also, make sure that as the knee comes up, the
toe of the same leg is dorsiflexed (up) and the heel is underneath
the butt. Leg action during acceleration should be a pushing action,
where the foot is pushed down and back into the ground to propel the
body forward.
Mat Jumps: This is a great drill that I learned from Strength
Coach, Jeff Oliver to teach athletes triple extension. Begin in a
pushup position in front of a mat that the athlete can jump onto.
One knee should be pulled into their chest, and the back should
remain flat. On the coach's command, the athlete should drive off
the leg that is pulled up and extend their body completely so they
land on the mat. The coach should look for complete triple extension
of the lead leg.
Pushup Starts: This drill is a progression from the previous
drill; the athlete begins in the same position without the mat. On
the coach's command they now sprint 5-10 yds, with the same pushing
emphasis that they used on the mats. The key to look for is that the
athlete gets full extension off the lead leg on the initial push
before the trail leg comes through. If the athlete cannot fully
extend the lead leg, before the trail leg comes through, then more
glute and hamstring strength work needs to be done.
LMT Progression
Acceleration should be emphasized when teaching LMT, because that is
what most athletes need. Most athletes rarely reach top speed in
competition and it should therefore not be the primary emphasis in
workouts. When progressing from one phase to the next it is
important to start with short distances and increase distances as
technique improves. For example, when performing short acceleration
sprints, begin with 10 yds sprints, then progress to 15 yds, then
progress to 20 yds, and so on.
Lateral Movement Training
Lateral Movement Training (LAMT) is also known as agility or change
of direction training. This type of movement requires athletes to
decelerate and accelerate in a variety of directions: conditions
specific to most sports.
Many coaches develop this
aspect of performance with mini hurdle and cone drills, but neglect
to actually teach athletes how to decelerate properly and change
direction in the most efficient manner possible. If you’ve ever
played football, you remember doing those awful bag drills, where
you run laterally over them and were barked at to get your knees up
higher. The bags had the right idea of improving lateral movement,
but when moving laterally in sport, athletes never have to pick
their knees up very high. They keep their feet low to the ground and
take short, quick steps that emphasize pushing – not high-stepping -
in either direction. Take a look at any linebacker positioning
himself to make a tackle, basketball guard playing defense, or
tennis player awaiting a serve and notice if they’re picking their
knees up while moving laterally.
To teach proper lateral movement, coaches must first teach athletes
the basic athletic position. This requires the athlete to have their
feet about shoulder width apart, butt back, knees bent, chest out,
back flat, and looking straight ahead. This position teaches
athletes that their weight should be distributed equally. The only
difference we are going to make this position to make it more
effective to move laterally is to point the knees in slightly
(internally rotate femur). This creates a positive shin angle to
move in either direction and allows an athlete to be in a more
efficient position when beginning. The athlete's body weight should
be on the inside balls of the feet with the toes pointing inwards
slightly or straight ahead, they should not be turned out. Try this
stance out and move side to side. You should feel much stronger when
moving in either direction compared to the traditional "knees
straight- ahead" stance. Strength coach Jeff Oliver is a huge
proponent of this type of positioning and performs a variety of
drills to emphasize these shin angles.
Positive Shin Angles
Negative Shin Angles
LAMT is broken down into pure lateral movements and linear-lateral
movements. Pure lateral movement drills are only side to side
movements. Linear-lateral movements combine both lateral and linear
movements with a change of direction. The basic premise of having a
positive shin angle at all times is the key teaching point.
There are 2 basic drills that form the basis of LAMT and are
progressed over time.
Lateral Drill: 1-2 Cut Progression
I learned this progression from strength coach Mike Boyle; it is a
simple way to teach lateral movement. Begin in the basic position,
with knees in. In this example we will be moving to the right first.
Initiate the movement with your right leg by picking it up and
pushing with your left leg to move that direction, then repeat again
with your right and left and stick your landing on your right leg
and your left leg in the air. When sticking, the athletes weight
should be distributed on the inside ball of the foot, and the knee
and shin should be pointing towards the left (direction you want to
go).
Now begin with the left
and push with the right, leaving you back on your left leg. It is
important to be able to decelerate with the knee in. You will notice
that if the athletes’ knee comes out and the shin angle is lost, the
athlete will fall off balance. This drill then progresses to where
there is no stick and there is a fast change of direction after two
steps. This drill can also be performed with three or more steps.
The drill is then progressed to where the athlete performing the
drill is resisted by a band held by the coach or partner.
Eventually, one can try it moving forward and backward at 45-degree
angles.
Linear-Lateral Drill: Clock Progression
This is a progression that strength coach Shawn Windle and I created
to teach linear- lateral movement. The drill is based upon the
numbers of a clock, and begins with a 5-10 yd. sprint to a cone,
where the athlete changes direction towards a number on a clock. The
key to teach the movement is to point the knee and shin towards the
direction they want to go. For example, if I wanted run at 1
o’clock, I would have to push off of my left leg, and would need to
point that knee and shin in the direction I wanted to go (1
o’clock). The drill should be performed both ways (i.e. 1 and 11
o'clock for right and left changes of direction, respectively). It
can also be performed backward to forward, lateral to forward,
forward to lateral or any other combination you can think of. The
key is to always look for the shin angle and drill it to the athlete
to have a positive shin angle. The drill begins by changing
direction towards 1/11 o’clock, then to 2/10, then to 3/9, then to
4/8, and finally to 5/7. The angle at which the change of direction
must occur becomes progressively smaller, which makes the drill much
harder to perform because a greater amount of high speed eccentric
strength is needed to decelerate and then re-accelerate.
These are all examples of programmed changes of directions where the
athlete knows where to go. As the sport season approaches more
random change of direction drills are necessary. A variety of drills
emphasizing a change of direction to a visual, auditory or tactile
stimulus should be implemented.
1 ‘o’ Clock Shin Angle
11 ‘o’ Clock Shin Angle
Summary
I hope that I shed some light on some different methods in training
movements and making athletes more efficient. I have found these
methods very "teachable" and effective in athletes of different ages
and experience levels. Don’t get carried away with making everything
sport-specific; rather, teach athletes how to move and be more
efficient. This will yield superior results in terms of increasing
their overall athleticism while making it easier for them to quickly
pick up sport skills.
Remember that the key point in teaching athletes new motor skills is
to demand perfection with technique. If athletes are performing
movements like garbage, they'll get garbage results. Coaches should
practice these drills before having their athletes perform them.
Always make sure that you can do it yourself before you are going to
have somebody else do it. By performing the different drills, you
will notice what to feel and how it should look; doing so will make
you a better coach. So get off your butt, and get moving!
I would like to thank Ari Confesor for being such a great model in
the pictures above.
References:
1. Boyle, M. Unpublished. 2001.
2. Fischman, M.G., Oxendine, J.B. Motor Skill Learning for Effective
Coaching and Performance. Applied Sport Psychology: Personal Growth
to Peak Performance. McGraw-Hill. 2001.
3. Gambetta, V (1998). Soccer Speed. Gambetta Sports Training
Systems.
4. Newton’s Three Laws of Motion.
<http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/history/newton3laws.html>
5. Newton’s Laws of Motion.
< http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/gbssci/phys/Class/newtlaws/u2l4a.html>
6. Oliver, J. Unpublished. 2002.
7. Windle, S. Unpublished. 2002
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